Lo mbhalo unikeza ulwazi ngocwaningo lwe-Oxfam ngobuchwepheshe bokukhipha usawoti emanzini, abahlinzeki kanye nezifundo ezifundwe ngokusebenzisa izinhlelo zokuhlanza amanzi okukhipha usawoti emazweni amaningana. Kufanele ufundwe kanye nombiko wocwaningo lwe-Oxfam – Imephu Yomgwaqo Yokususa Usawoti Encane (2018) enikeza isifinyezo sobuchwepheshe bamanje nobusha bokukhipha usawoti emanzini. I-Oxfam ifake izikhungo zokwelapha amanzi okukhipha usawoti emanzini ezincane noma eziphakathi ePalestine, eSyria, e-Iraq, e-Yemen, eSomaliland, eBangladesh naseKenya ngempumelelo ehlukahlukene. Ngaphandle kwephrojekthi yokuhlola ye-solar stills eBangladesh, konke kusekelwe kubuchwepheshe be -reverse osmosis (RO), obubangela iningi lezikhungo zokususa usawoti emanzini emhlabeni jikelele. Ngenkathi ukukhishwa usawoti emanzini kuba yinto engabizi kakhulu futhi kuvela ubuchwepheshe obusha, ukuze kusizwe abantu – ngenxa yezindleko nobunzima, ukwelashwa ngamanzi ngokukhipha usawoti emanzini kufanele kubhekwe njengesinyathelo sokugcina.
Background
Usawoti uba yinkinga evame kakhulu ezinhlelweni ze-Oxfam. Amanye amanzi angaphansi komhlaba anombala oluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka ngokwemvelo. Kodwa-ke, ukushintshashintsha kwesimo sezulu kanye nokwanda kwezikhathi zesomiso kunciphisa ukugcwaliswa kwamanzi angaphansi komhlaba futhi kuholele ekuwohlokeni kwekhwalithi yamanzi kwezinye izifunda. Kwezinye izindawo ukuphathwa kabi kanye nokuntuleka kwemithetho kuholela ekukhishweni ngokweqile kanye nokungena kwamanzi olwandle (ezindaweni ezisogwini) noma "ukuguguleka" kwamanzi aluhlaza okungenzeka ukuthi abanjwe emadwaleni kusukela lapho edalwa. Uma i-aquifer ingcolisiwe ngale ndlela ayinakuguqulwa.
I-Oxfam ayinayo ikhithi yokukhipha usawoti emanzini ngaphakathi kweSikhungo sayo Sokunikezela ngoba amanzi ahlukene adinga inhlanganisela ehlukene yokwelashwa kwangaphambi kokwelashwa, ukwelashwa kanye nokwelashwa kwangemva kokwelashwa okudinga iseluleko sochwepheshe. Lo mbhalo uhlose ukunikeza isiqondiso esisebenzayo ezintweni okudingeka zicatshangelwe uma uhlela uhlelo lokukhipha usawoti emanzini.
Ukubuka Konke Kokukhipha Usawoti Emanzini
Ukugxila kocwaningo lwe-“Road Map” kwakuwukunikeza izincomo zezindawo ezincane zokususa usawoti emanzini. Umbiko uphetha ngokuthi i) I-solar still distillation (SSD) iyindlela engcono kakhulu yokusetshenziswa kwekhaya ngalinye, ngenxa yokutshalwa kwezimali okuphansi kanye nobulula bayo; ii) I-Reverse Osmosis (RO) ubuchwepheshe obusebenza kahle kakhulu ezindaweni ezincane (lokhu kwachazwa ngokuthi yi-1-10m3/ngosuku kodwa isincomo sisebenza ngokulinganayo ezinhlelweni ezinkulu); kanye iii) I-Capacitive Deionisation (CDI) ubuchwepheshe obusha obubonisa ithemba futhi obufanele ukucatshangelwa ngamanzi aluhlaza anosawoti ongaphansi kuka-3,500ppm TDS njengenye indlela esikhundleni se-RO (ucwaningo olwengeziwe luqinisekisile ukuthi ukusebenza kwamayunithi e-CDI akhona okuhweba kunciphisa kakhulu ngaphezu kwe-1,000ppm okunciphisa ukusetshenziswa kwawo).
Ukulinganiswa kosawoti kanye nokuhlukaniswa
Usawoti ubhekisela ekuqongeleleni kosawoti oncibilikayo emanzini. Wonke amanzi emvelo aqukethe usawoti oncibilikisiwe njenge-sodium, i-magnesium ne-calcium. I-Sodium chloride iyona evame kakhulu kuwo wonke usawoti. Akukho siqondiso sezempilo esisekelwe kwi-WHO mayelana nosawoti futhi ukunambitheka kwamanzi ngokuvamile kuzobe kungafaneleki ngaphambi kokuba kufinyelele ezingeni lapho kuyingozi khona empilweni. Usawoti ungalinganiswa ngokuqhutshwa kukagesi (EC) - okuvezwa ku-μS/cm, noma ama-solids ancibilikisiwe ngokuphelele (TDS) - okuvezwa ku-mg/l noma ku-ppm. Ukuguqulwa phakathi kwalokhu okubili akuhlali njalo futhi kuncike kokuqukethwe kwamakhemikhali emanzini, noma kunjalo i-0.67 ivame ukusetshenziswa njenge-conversion factor okungukuthi amanzi ane-TDS engu-2,000mg/l cishe alingana ne-EC engu-3,000 μS/cm. Ngenhloso yalokhu usawoti omfushane wobuchwepheshe uboniswa ku-TDS.
Akukho sivumelwano esikhona emhlabeni wonke mayelana nokuthi amanzi anosawoti ophansi, ophakathi nophezulu futhi ukwamukelwa kwawo kuzohluka phakathi kwabathengi, amazwe kanye nokusetshenziswa kwawo. Ngakho-ke, ithebula elingezansi kufanele lisetshenziswe kuphela njengesiqondiso esiqondile. Ekusetshenzisweni kwabantu, i-1,000mg/l TDS ivame ukusetshenziswa njengomkhawulo kulokho okungahlukaniswa njengamanzi ahlanzekile. Amanzi olwandle ane-TDS ejwayelekile engu-35,000mg/l.
| 0 - 1,000 | Kufanelekela zonke izinjongo ezijwayelekile |
| 1,000 - 3,000 | Ifanele imfuyo, ayifanele ukusetshenziswa ngabantu |
| 3,000 - 5,000 | Ifanele imfuyo, ayifanele ukudliwa ngabantu |
| 5,000 - 7,000 | Ifanele amakamela, incane kakhulu kunezinye izifuyo |
| 7,000 - 10,000 | Kufanelekela amakamela, kungafaneleki izimbuzi nezimvu, akufanelekela izinkomo |
| I-10,000-15,000 | Ingxenye engezansi yamakamela, kuphela ezimweni eziphuthumayo zezimbuzi nezimvu |
| > 15,000 | Akufaneleki kunoma yisiphi isilwane esifuywayo |
Ezinye izindlela zokwelapha ngaphandle kwe-RO
Izinketho Ezingezona Ezokwelapha
Njengoba kunezinselele ezihambisana nokusebenza ngempumelelo nokugcina isitshalo sokukhipha usawoti emanzini, uma ukwelashwa kokususa usawoti noma ezinye izinto ezingcolisayo zamakhemikhali kungagwenywa khona-ke ezinye izindlela ezinjalo zingacatshangelwa. Izinketho ukuxubana namanzi anosawoti omncane noma ukuthuthukisa imithombo emisha, uma kukhona izinketho zamanzi ahlanzekile. Lokhu kungabangela ukupompa nokuhambisa amanzi emapayipini kude kakhulu. Ezimweni ezinjalo, ukuhlaziywa kokusebenziseka kanye nezindleko kungenziwa ukuze kutholakale ukuthi yisiphi isisombululo esingcono kakhulu.
Izithombe Zelanga
I-solar still iwubuchwepheshe obulula kakhulu obusekelwe ekushiseni nasekuqoqweni kwamaconsi amanzi ahlanganisiwe. Ayidingi ugesi noma yiziphi izingxenye zemishini noma ezihambayo ngakho-ke inezindleko zokusebenza ezincane ezihambisanayo. Isebenza kahle ngokulinganayo emanzini anosawoti omncane nanosawoti omningi. I-solar still ingase ifanele izidingo zokuphuza zemindeni ngayinye ezindaweni zasemakhaya kodwa ngenxa yokuthi umkhiqizo uphansi kakhulu, njengoba inani labasebenzisi kanye nesidingo sanda, ngokushesha iba yinto engabizi futhi ingasebenzi uma ubheka izidingo zesikhala esikhulu.
Ngo-2013, i-Oxfam yaqala ukuhlola ama-solar still amabili e-Fcubed Carrocell 3000 eBangladesh. Lena yimodeli enkulu kunazo zonke kwezintathu ezikhiqizwe (ene-surface area engu-3m2) futhi inkampani ithi ingahlinzeka ngamalitha angu-20 amanzi ngosuku (<30 degrees Celsius). EBangladesh bahlinzeka ngamanzi asezingeni elihle kodwa aphakathi kwamalitha angu-8 no-15 kuphela ngosuku futhi ngenxa yalokhu ukuhlolwa kwaqedwa ngaphandle kokwandiswa. I-Oxfam Kenya yacabanga ukwethula okufanayo kuhlelo lwayo lwe-Turkana kodwa izindleko ezingama-$450 ngomndeni ngamunye kwakuyisithiyo esikhulu ekuphindaphindweni. Amayunithi amaningana angabekwa njengengxenye yemodyuli enkulu kodwa izindleko nendawo edingekayo kuyanda ngendlela ecishe ibe yi-linear.
I-Iraq (i-Innovation Lab) ibambisene ne -Aquaba ngenhloso yokukhiqizwa kwendawo kwezithombe zelanga. Le nkampani ikhiqiza umshini welanga osabiza u-$150 (indawo engu-1m2) ethi uyakwazi ukukhiqiza amalitha amanzi afinyelela ku-5 ngosuku.
Ama-solar still angalungiswa ngezinto zasendaweni - ingilazi noma ngisho nepulasitiki ngezindleko eziphansi kakhulu emikhiqizweni yezentengiselwano kodwa ukusebenza kahle kuyehla ngokufanele, ngakho kungaba umnotho wamanga.
Nakuba ubuchwepheshe obulula kakhulu, intengo ngelitha lamanzi avela kumshini welanga isayenza ubuchwepheshe bokukhipha usawoti obiza kakhulu. Ama-solar still ane-"niche" yawo kodwa awafaneleki ekuphenduleni okuphuthumayo kwe-WASH lapho i-Oxfam idinga ukuletha amanzi emiphakathini ngobuningi.
Ukususwa kwe-Capacitive (CDI)
I-CDI isebenzisa amandla kagesi aphansi e-DC kanye nama-electrode ukukhiqiza amandla kagesi alawula ama-ion amahle nangalungile ashaja emifudlaneni ehlukene yamanzi ahlanzekile kanye namanzi ahlanzekile.
Ngamanzi anosawoti omncane, i-CDI idinga amandla amancane uma kuqhathaniswa ne-RO futhi inamazinga amahle okululama (80+%). Amaseli e-CDI nawo kubikwa ukuthi awabuthakathaka kakhulu kune-RO membranes kodwa ukwelashwa kwangaphambi kwesikhathi kusadingeka ukuze kususwe izinhlayiya nezinto eziphilayo ebezizovala amamojula. Ngemva kocwaningo lwe-Road Map, i-Oxfam ibilokhu ixoxa nezinkampani eziningana ezihamba phambili kanye noma abantu abangochwepheshe kwezobuchwepheshe be-CDI. Ngesikhathi sokubhala, izinhlelo ze-CDI ezikhona ezitholakala kwezentengiselwano zibonakala zikwazi ukubhekana namanzi angavuthiwe anomkhawulo we-TDS ongu-2,000ppm noma ngaphansi okuvimbela kakhulu lapho ubuchwepheshe bungasetshenziswa khona futhi ngenxa yalokho ukusebenza kwawo ezinhlelweni ze-Oxfam.
Kubonakala sengathi i-CDI isebenza kahle eNdiya ekhiqiza amaseli e-CDI ngokwezentengiselwano futhi isungule ama-kiosk amanzi asemakhaya ahlinzeka ngamanzi ahlanziwe yi-CDI. Ukuze sihlole ngokugcwele amandla e-CDI ezinhlelweni ze-Oxfam sifuna izindawo ezifanele zokuhlola kodwa kuze kube manje ububanzi bosawoti obulinganiselwe buvimbele lokhu. I-CDI isewubuchwepheshe obusafufusa nobushintshayo. Inamandla kodwa kungase kuthathe iminyaka eminingana ngaphambi kokuba ifinyelele esimweni lapho ingaba usizo ezinhlelweni zethu.
I-Reverse Osmosis (RO)
I-Reverse Osmosis inqubo lapho amanzi ekhishwa khona amaminerali futhi ekhishwa i-ion ngokuwacindezela ngaphansi kwengcindezi nge-membrane "reverse osmosis" evumela amanye ama-athomu nama-molecule ukuthi adlule (njengoba egcwala) ngenkathi evimbela amanye (ukwenqatshwa/utshwala) - Kuhlelo lokwelapha amanzi olusezingeni lomphakathi, i-RO okwamanje iyindlela engokoqobo kuphela yezinhlelo ze-Oxfam. Izisekelo eziyisisekelo zemishini ezihlobene ne-RO zilula kakhulu okungukuthi sebenzisa iphampu kagesi ukukhiqiza ingcindezi yamanzi eyanele ukuphoqa ama-molecule amanzi nge-membrane (ingcindezi ye-trans-membrane ukufeza lokhu isukela kumabha ama-5 emanzini anosawoti ophansi kuya kumabha angama-84 emanzini olwandle). Kodwa-ke, izigaba eziningi zangaphambi kokwelashwa zokususa ukungcola emanzini okungahambisani nama-membrane e-RO, ukunakekelwa okudingekayo ukunakekela ama-membrane, kanye nokuvuselelwa kabusha kwamaminerali kanye ne-chlorination ngemuva kokwelashwa ukuze kugwenywe ukungcola, ndawonye kwenza uhlelo lwe-RO lube nzima kakhulu. Ukuze wenze isinqumo esinolwazi sokuthi i-RO ifanelekile yini, kubalulekile ukuba nokuqonda okungenani okuyisisekelo kwezimiso zokusebenza.
amagama ahlobene ne-RO
I-membrane ye-RO – i-membrane yesimanje ivame ukuba yinhlanganisela yefilimu encane equkethe izendlalelo ezintathu: i-web yokusekela i-polyester, i-interlayer enezimbobo ezincane kanye ne-polymide barrier encane kakhulu. Lokhu kupakishwe ngendlela efana ne-spiral-would "yamaqabunga" aneqabunga elenziwe ngamashidi amabili e-membrane ahlanganiswe ndawonye nge-permeater spacer phakathi kwawo (isithombe 3).
Ingxenye yamanzi okudla – ngokuvamile i-10-20%, idlula kulwelwesi bese iphuma njengoba ingena. Kunezinhlobo eziningi ezahlukene zelwelwesi ezifanela izinjongo ezahlukene, amanzi okudla kanye nokungena okudingekayo. I-“Dow” ekhiqiza ilwelwesi lwe-“Filmtech” RO inezigaba ezintathu ezibanzi ezilandelayo:
| Ikilasi le-Membrane | Ibanga (TDS) |
| Amanzi ompompi (TW) | Kufika ku-2,000mg/l |
| I-Brackish (BW) | Kufika ku-12,000mg/l |
| Amanzi Olwandle (SW) | 8,000-50,000mg/l |
Uhlobo kanye nohlobo lwe-membrane kuzoncika ekwakhiweni kwamakhemikhali emanzini okudla futhi kufanele kunqunywe ochwepheshe be-RO. Ama-membrane e-RO afika ngobukhulu obujwayelekile ngakho-ke izinhlobo ezahlukene kufanele zishintshelane. Amagama ajwayelekile ahlelwe ngokulandelana kanje – Isigaba (TW,BW,SW), Umndeni Wezinto – ububanzi (amasentimitha x10), Ubude (amasentimitha)
Isibonelo, i-membrane engenhla efakwe yi-Oxfam eKenya yenzelwe amanzi e-Brackish (BW), umndeni wezinto ezilahliwe kakhulu (30), ububanzi obuyi-intshi ezingu-4 (40), ubude obuyi-intshi ezingu-40 (40).
Ama-membrane ayizingxenye ezibiza kakhulu nezibucayi kakhulu zohlelo lokwelashwa lwe-RO futhi ngaphandle kokunakekelwa okufanele angonakaliswa kalula.
Imithambo yokucindezela – ama-membrane amaningana e-RO, ngokuvamile asuka ku-1 kuya ku-6, angase agcinwe esitsheni esisodwa sokucindezela. Imithambo yokucindezela eminingi ingamiswa ngesikhathi esisodwa ukuze kwandiswe ivolumu yokuncipha kokungena kwamanzi. “Izigaba” ezengeziwe (noma “ukudlula”) zingasethwa ngokulandelana ukuze kwandiswe ukululama.
Ukubuyisa/ukudlula (%) – umthamo wamanzi adlula ku-membrane ye-RO “njengokugcwala” (amanzi ahlanzekile aphathwe). Ukubuyisa kufika ku-90% kungenzeka ngezinhlelo ze-RO ezinamanzi angenasawoti. Kodwa-ke, izindleko kanye nobunzima besistimu kuyanda ngokufanele njengoba kudingeka ingcindezi ephezulu yokusebenza, ingozi yokukhula kwe-membrane iyanda kanye nezidingo ezengeziwe ze-O&M ziyadingeka. Izinhlelo ze-RO ezincane kuya kweziphakathi nezinkulu ezisetshenziswa yi-Oxfam cishe zizoba nokubuyisa okuphezulu okungu-70%.
Ukwenqatshwa/ukugxilisa (%) – izinto eziqinile ezincibilikisiwe noma eziphelele ezingenakudlula olwelwesini bese zakha umfudlana wamanzi ahlanzekile. Kuye ngokuthi usawoti ungakanani, kungase kusetshenziswe lokhu ngezinjongo ezingasebenzisi njengokugeza nokuhlanza. Uma kungenjalo, kufanele kucatshangelwe ukulahla okuphephile. Isamba sokubuyiselwa kanye nokwenqatshwa silingana nokugeleza kokudla.
Izigaba – Ohlelweni lwesigaba esisodwa, amanzi okuhambisa adlula emkhunjini wokucindezela kanye ukuze akhiqize imifudlana ehlukene egeleza futhi elahliwe. Kumanzi anosawoti, izigaba eziningi zingenzeka ukwandisa ukubuyisa, ngokubuyisa okuphezulu okungu-50% kusuka esigabeni ngasinye. Ohlelweni lwesigaba sesi-2 ukulahla okuvela esigabeni soku-1 kuba amanzi okuhambisa emikhunjini yokucindezela yesigaba sesibili kanti ukubuyisa okuvela esigabeni sesi-2 kwengezwa ekusakazeni okuvela esigabeni soku-1. Uma sicabanga ukuthi ukubuyisa okungu-50% esigabeni ngasinye, ukubuyisa okuphelele kungu-75%, kanti ukulahla kungu-25%.
I-Array – lokhu kuchaza ukuhlelwa okungokoqobo kwemikhumbi yokucindezela ohlelweni lwezigaba ezimbili. Ngoba umthamo wamanzi oya esigabeni sesibili, noma ngisho nesesithathu ungaphansi kwesangaphambilini. Ezinhlelweni ezinkulu imikhumbi yokucindezela eminingi izohlelwa ngokuhambisana “ngezitaki” kanye ne-stack elandelayo ngokulandelana bese yehla. I-array engu-2:1 ingaba nemikhumbi engu-4 edla imikhumbi emibili.
Gxilisa kabusha – njengendlela engabizi kakhulu yokuba nesigaba sesibili, ingxenye ye-brine enqatshiwe ingajikeleziswa futhi ifakwe emanzini okuhambisa amanzi ukuze kwandiswe ukuvuselelwa kwesistimu.
Ukukhula – lokhu kungenzeka njengoba ezinye izinto ezincibilikisiwe (ezingaphili) ziqina kakhulu. Ukukhula okuvame kakhulu kungenxa ye-calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Ukukhula kwenzeka lapho imingcele yokuncibilika idlula, izinto ezincibilikayo ziphuma esixazululweni futhi zingena kulwelwesi. Ukukhula kunciphisa kakhulu ukusebenza ngokuvaleka kwezindwangu, okuholela ekugelezeni okuphansi kokungena kwamanzi kanye nekhwalithi ephansi yamanzi angena emanzini. Uhlelo oluklanywe kahle luzonciphisa ukuthambekela kokukhula okungadinga ukwengezwa kwe-anti-scalant (ngaphambi kokwelashwa) emanzini okuhambisa amanzi.
Ukungcola – kubangelwa ukuqongelela kwezinhlayiya, eziphilayo noma ezincane ezivala ulwelwesi. Ukwelashwa okuphumelelayo ngaphambi kokususa izinto eziphilayo eziyingozi kanye nezinto ezincane, kanye nomklamo omuhle wokuqinisekisa ijubane lamanzi ageleza kulo lonke ulwelwesi kwanele “ukukhukhula” usawoti nokuvimbela ukwakheka nokuvaleka kobuso bolwelwesi.
Ukuhlaselwa ngamakhemikhali – Ama-membrane esimanje acwebezelayo awakwazi ukumelana ne-chlorine nezinye izinto ezikhipha i-oxidizer, okuthi uma kungasuswa kuzoshisa imigodi ema-pores e-membrane futhi kubangele umonakalo ongenakulungiswa.
Ukuhlanza Endaweni (CIP) – kuhilela ukufaka isixazululo samakhemikhali njalo emthanjeni wokucindezela, njenge-citric acid, ekuhlanzeni izindwangu ngaphandle kokuzisusa futhi kuvikele ekungcoleni nasekukhuculukeni. Uhlelo lwe-CIP lungasetshenziswa futhi ukwengeza isilondolozi samakhemikhali ukuvikela izindwangu. Lokhu kuyadingeka uma uhlelo lungeke lusetshenziswe izinsuku eziningana ukuvikela ekonakalisweni.
Ngaphambi kokwelashwa
Uhlobo kanye nokwakheka kwamakhemikhali kwamanzi okuphakelwa kuzonquma ukuthi yikuphi ukwelashwa okudingekayo ngaphambi kokwelashwa. Izinyathelo ezivamile zifaka:
Ukuhlunga kwe-Multimedia (MMF) kusiza ukuvimbela ukungcola ngokususa izinhlayiya ezifinyelela kuma-micron angu-15-20. Isihlungi sekhatriji esingu-5-micron ngokuvamile sizobekwa ngemuva kwe-MMF ukuvimbela noma yikuphi ukugqashuka kwemidiya yokuhlunga.
Ukuhlunga nge-Microfiltration (MF) kususa ngempumelelo izinto ze-colloidal kanye namagciwane. I-fibre engenalutho ivame ukusetshenziswa kakhulu okudinga ukugezwa ngemuva njalo.
Ama-anti-scalants/izithibi zesikali – Ngokufaka emanzini okudla, i-anti-scalant yandisa umkhawulo wokuncibilika kwamanzi futhi ivimbele ukuna kosawoti okuholela ekwakhekeni kwesikali. Ukukhetha i-anti-scalant kanye nomthamo ofanele kuncike kumakhemikhali wamanzi okudla kanye nomklamo wesistimu ye-RO.
Ukwelashwa kwe -Ultra Violet (UV) kubulala amagciwane avimbela ukukhula kanye nokungcola kwama-membrane.
Ngemva kokwelashwa
Uhlelo lwe-RO olusebenza kahle luvame ukususa u-95-99% "wezinto ezingcolisayo". La manzi ahlanziwe anambitheka kancane ngoba awasulwanga nje kuphela usawoti oyingozi noma oweqile kodwa futhi namaminerali abalulekile. Ukulinganisa kabusha ngemva kokwelashwa kuyadingeka ukuze kuphinde kufakwe amaminerali futhi kubuyiselwe amaminerali abalulekile emanzini. Amanzi kufanele futhi afakwe i-chlorine.
Izici ezibalulekile uma ucabangela i-RO
Kunezizathu ezintathu ezibalulekile zokunquma ukuthi ingabe ukususwa kukasawoti we-reverse osmosis kufanelekile.
- Izindleko nokufinyelelekaIzinhlelo zokususa usawoti emanzini zibhekwa njengezibizayo kodwa izindleko zinciphile kakhulu eminyakeni yamuva nje. I-PV yelanga inikeza umthombo wamandla oshibhile futhi oluhlaza kumafutha asetshenziswayo, okunciphisa izindleko zokusebenza. Izindleko ze-membrane zinciphile ngentengo eminyakeni yamuva nje futhi njengabaphakeli abasha emakethe, izixazululo ezingabizi kakhulu zekhwalithi ephezulu seziyatholakala eziqondiswe emakethe yentuthuko yabantu. Amanzi ahlinzekwa ngohlelo lwe-RO ayandisa kakhulu izindleko zawo kodwa lapho amanzi engekho khona, kungaba yisisombululo sesikhathi eside esishibhile kakhulu ekuthuthweni kwamanzi okuphindaphindiwe okwenzeka eSomalia, e-Ethiopia, e-Yemen nakwezinye izindawo.
- Ubunkimbinkimbi bobuchwepheshe. Izinhlelo ze-RO cishe ziwubuchwepheshe bokwelapha amanzi obuthuthuke kakhulu obutholakalayo bokuphakelwa kwamanzi. Uma zihlukaniswe ngezingxenye zazo, umqhubi oqeqeshiwe kufanele akwazi ukuphatha izigaba zangaphambi kokwelashwa, ulwelwesi olunomfutho ophezulu kanye nezigaba zangemuva kokwelashwa. Kodwa-ke, ukungalandeli izinqubo ezilandelanayo ezidingekayo noma amaphutha alula njengokungavuli ivalvu efanele noma ukwenza ukuhlanza okuvamile kungaba nemiphumela emikhulu. Lokhu kungaphezu kwezinkinga ezivamile ze-O&M ezihlobene nanoma yiluphi uhlelo lokuphakelwa kwamanzi. Ngakho-ke kunconywa kakhulu ukuthi izinhlelo ze-RO azifanele ukuphathwa komphakathi. Uhlelo lwe-RO oluzinzile ludinga ukufinyelela kokusekelwa kobuchwepheshe obukhethekile, isib. isivumelwano sokulungiswa kwezinga lesevisi, kanye nezinga eliqhubekayo lobuchwepheshe obungaphandle kwendawo, izidingo ezihlobene kakhulu nezinsiza noma ukuhlinzekwa kwamanzi okwenziwa ngasese.
- Ukusebenza kahle kwamanzi – Uhlelo lwe-RO oluklanywe kahle nolunakekelwe kahle kufanele lube nokululama okuphakathi kuka-60 no-70%. Izinkinga zokukhula/ukungcola zinganciphisa ukusebenza kakhulu. Esigabeni sokuhlela kudingeka kucatshangelwe ukuthola ukusetshenziswa okuphumelelayo kwamanzi alahliwe angu-30-40% (mhlawumbe ngaphezulu). Ezindaweni ezomile nezingenamanzi amaningi, umfudlana omkhulu wamanzi alahliwe ovela emanzini angaphansi komhlaba ampompayo ungase ungamukeleki kuziphathimandla futhi ube yingozi emvelweni. Amanzi alahliwe angase amukeleke ngokuphelele ngezinjongo zasekhaya ezingadli njengokuhlanza nokuhlanza. Kukhona nezitshalo ezibekezelela usawoti ezinganiselwa ngamanzi alahliwe. ISomaliland icabanga ukuthi izinhlelo ze-RO zingadala yini amapulazi ezinhlanzi kanye namathuba amasha okuziphilisa.
I-RO Esebenzisa Amandla Elanga
Ama-photovoltaic ahlinzeka ngesisombululo sezindleko zamandla aphezulu ezihambisana nokukhishwa kukasawoti emanzini. Kudingeka ukulungiswa komklamo othize ukuze kwenziwe ngcono uhlelo lwe-RO oluzosebenza nge-PV ngakho-ke akunjalo ukuthi noma yimiphi imishini ye-RO ingaxhunywa kujeneretha we-PV onamandla afanayo alingana nodizili. Ngokungafani nokupompa kwelanga kokuphakelwa kwamanzi okunomphumela oguquguqukayo (kodwa ovikelwe ngokuqinisekisa isitoreji esanele), izitshalo ze-RO zisebenza kahle kakhulu uma zisebenza njalo (nangokucindezela nokugeleza okuqhubekayo) okunikezwa ugesi wegridi noma ijeneretha yedizili.
Izinyathelo zingafaka ukusetshenziswa kwamaphampu okuhambisa amanzi amahle avame ukugcina ingcindezi phezu kobubanzi bokufakwa kwamandla kunephampu ye-centrifugal. Ama-motor esivinini aguquguqukayo, ajwayelekile kuwo wonke amaphampu elanga anikeza ukuqala/ukumisa okuthambile futhi anciphise ingozi yokucindezeleka komshini okubekwa kuma-membrane. Imikhumbi yokucindezela inganikeza i-buffer yokukhokhela isikhathi sesembozo samafu sesikhathi esifushane kodwa lokhu kwandisa izindleko eziphelele, kanye ne-elekthronikhi ehlakaniphile ngaphakathi kweyunithi yokulawula. Amabhethri angenye indlela kodwa njengasekupompeni kwamanzi elanga okuvamile, amabhethri awanconywa ngenxa yezindleko zawo, ukwehla kokusebenza ngokuhamba kwesikhathi kanye nokuphila okulinganiselwe.
Abahlinzeki bezentengiselwano abakhona – Kunenani elikhulayo labahlinzeki abangochwepheshe kwizixazululo ze-solar RO futhi bathi bane-patent ethuthukisa imikhiqizo yabo nge-PV futhi ihlukanise kwabanye abahlinzeki – i-Boreal Light , i-Mascara , i-Solar Water Solutions , i-Swiss Fresh Water , kanye ne -Trunz bangabahlinzeki abaningana abaziwayo bamazwe ngamazwe.
Njengamanje i-Oxfam ayinalo ulwazi lwasensimini kanye nedatha evela ezinhlelweni ezahlukene ngakho kunzima ukuqhathanisa ukusebenza noma ukuhlukanisa ukuthi yimuphi umehluko wangempela wobuchwepheshe uma kuqhathaniswa nokumaketha okuhlakaniphile. Lokhu kwenza kube nzima ukunquma ukusebenza noma inani elengeziwe lokungenisa uhlelo lokwelapha i-RO oluklanywe futhi oluhlanganisiwe lwaseYurophu uma kuqhathaniswa nolusebenzisa izingxenye ezifanayo zophawu kodwa oluklanywe futhi lwahlanganiswa ngentengo eshibhile ezweni. Nokho, okuqinisekile ukuthi uhlelo lokwelapha i-RO oluklanywe futhi olulungiselelwe ukuthi lunikezwe amandla yilanga luzosebenza kahle kakhulu kunohlelo olujwayelekile lwe-RO oluklanywe ukusebenzisa umthombo wamandla oqhubekayo ozinzile. Ngakho-ke kubalulekile ukubuza abahlinzeki ukuthi izinhlelo zilungiselelwa kanjani amandla elanga nokuthi idatha yokusebenza eshiwo - umkhiqizo wansuku zonke kanye nokusebenza kahle kwenza noma yikuphi ukuvumelana nosuku lwelanga kanye nonyaka. Ngokuphathelene nomkhiqizo, kuvamile ukuveza amandla okukhipha ngokusekelwe ekucabangeni kokusebenza okuqhubekayo kwamahora angama-24, ngakho-ke kubalulekile ukucacisa. Ezinye izinto ezibalulekile ngaphandle kwezindleko, ukukhiqizwa kanye nokusebenza kahle yikhwalithi yezingxenye ezisetshenziswayo (i-Dow, i-Pentair, i-GE isibonelo yimikhiqizo ye-membrane kanye ne-pressure vessel ehlonishwayo).
Zonke izinhlelo ze-PV kufanele zibe yi-hybrid futhi zikwazi ukusebenza kusetshenziswa umthombo wamandla wesibili wokusekela ukuze kwandiswe amahora okusebenza noma njengenye indlela esikhundleni selanga ngezikhathi zokumbozwa kwamafu amaningi.
Izindleko ezibonisayo – Ukuze uthole uhlelo lwe-RO oluphelele olufakwe esitsheni olune-“plug and play” olune-PV ekwazi ukukhiqiza i-1.7m3/hr (10m3/usuku lwelanga) oluthengwe yiSomaliland (2020) lubiza i-€50,000 (ngaphandle kokuthunyelwa). Izindleko ezibonisayo zeyunithi enkulu ekhipha i-10m3/usuku (50m3/usuku lwelanga) ziyi-€130,000. Lokhu kusekelwe emanzini anosawoti angaphansi kuka-6,000ppm TDS Izindleko zamayunithi Amanzi Olwandle e-TDS angu-33,000+ppm – akhiwe ngendlela ephakeme yokusingatha izingcindezi zokusebenza ezinkulu ziphezulu kakhulu.
Okuhlangenwe nakho kwe-Oxfam Field nge-RO
Ukuthola ulwazi mayelana nokuthi ikuphi kanye nokusebenza kokukhishwa kukasawoti e-Oxfam okukhona kube yinselele. Ezinye zidluliselwe kwabanye ozakwethu, ezinye azisasebenzi kanti kwabanye ukuqapha okuseduze nokulandelela akukenziwa. Ngakho-ke lolu akulona uhlu oluphelele futhi njengoba kuvela izibonelo ezintsha nezifundo ezifundwe lokhu kungabuyekezwa.
I-OPTI – IGaza ithembele emanzini angaphansi komhlaba, nokho u-97% wamanzi angaphansi komhlaba angcoliswe yinhlanganisela yokungena kosawoti ogwini (okubangelwa ukumuncwa ngokweqile) kanye ne-nitrate ephezulu (ngenxa yokungena kwendle kanye nokusetshenziswa ngokweqile kanye nokudonswa komanyolo emanzini angaphansi komhlaba). Kulesi simo, i-RO iyindlela kuphela yokuhlinzeka ngamanzi ahlanzekile futhi kunezitshalo zomphakathi ezingaphezu kwekhulu zokususa usawoti kanye nenani elifanayo lezinhlelo eziqhutshwa ngasese ukuhlangabezana nezidingo zabantu baseGaza abayizigidi ezimbili. Kukhona ubuchwepheshe obuqinile bemakethe kanye nobuchwepheshe obutholakalayo eZweni elikwazi ukuklama, ukuhlanganisa kanye nokulungisa imishini. Njengengxenye evamile yomsebenzi wayo we-WASH wobuntu, i-Oxfam eGaza ivuselele, yathuthukisa futhi yathuthukisa izinhlelo ezintsha ze-RO. Ngo-2018 ithimba laseGaza lafaka iyunithi yalo yokuqala ye-RO enamandla e-PV (umkhiqizo ongu-4.3m3/hr) ukunciphisa ukusatshalaliswa kwamandla okusabalele.
ISomaliland – izinhlelo ezimbili ze-RO ezisebenzisa amandla elanga zafakwa emadolobheni asemakhaya ngo-2018. Zombili zazisasebenza ngo-2020 kodwa zibhekane nezinselele ezinkulu zokusebenza. Ezinye izinkinga zatholakala esigabeni sokuhlela futhi zihlobene nezinselele zokuphatha nokuqalisa esikhundleni sobuchwepheshe uqobo. Lokhu kufaka phakathi i) ukukhetha izindawo zasemakhaya ezikude lapho ukwesekwa okuqhubekayo kobuchwepheshe kwakunzima ukukunikeza khona; ii) ukubandakanyeka komphakathi okunganele okuhlanganisa ukwehluleka ukuqonda isidingo kanye nokuzimisela ukukhokha; iii) ukungalingani nokunganaki iseluleko esihlobene namandla/isakhiwo sokuphatha esidingekayo ukuphatha uhlelo ngempumelelo; iv) izindima nemithwalo yemfanelo engacacile phakathi kwe-Oxfam, uHulumeni kanye noMphakathi noma indlela yokuxazulula izinkinga. Izinkinga zobuchwepheshe nazo ziye zabhekana nazo. Ama-membrane onakele futhi adinga ukushintshwa phakathi kwamasonto okufakwa futhi zombili izinhlelo zisebenza ngaphansi kwamalitha angu-7,500 ngosuku olulindelwe yilanga, okukhiqiza ukugeleza okuncane kanye nokwenqatshwa okuphezulu.
Ngo-2020, kwafakwa amayunithi amabili engeziwe anomthamo ophezulu (10m3/ngosuku, ngokusekelwe emahoreni ayi-6 okusebenza kwelanga, ukuvuselelwa okungu-65%) kwamanye amadolobhana. Kuthenjwa ukuthi izifundo ezitholwe kumayunithi amabili okuqala zizosiza lokhu kufakwa. Umklamo wobuchwepheshe wamayunithi okwelapha ushintshile ngokwandisa ukuzenzakalela ukuze kube lula ukusebenza futhi kuncishiswe ingozi yamaphutha abantu. Njengengxenye yalokhu kufakwa ama-valve okugeleza kagesi. Umhlinzeki (i-Boreal Light) uzophinde athathe umthwalo wokusebenzisa iyunithi izinyanga eziyi-12 ngaphambi kokuyinikeza ukuqinisekisa ukuthi noma yiziphi izinkinga zokusebenza ziyaxazululwa.
I-Yemen – ithenge iyunithi ye-solar RO enamandla angu-12m3/ngosuku kumhlinzeki ofanayo wamayunithi okwelapha eSomaliland (Boreal Light). Ibhekane nezinkinga ezinkulu zokukhula kwamazinyo kodwa
ikakhulukazi okungahlobene nobuchwepheshe ngokwalo (ukushintshana kwabasebenzi abaningi, ukuntuleka kokuqapha okusondelene okwaholela ekutheni iyunithi yokwelapha ibe nkulu kakhulu yomthombo wamanzi okubikwa ukuthi womile ngemva kwehora eli-1-2 lokupompa). Esikhundleni sokusekelwa kobuchwepheshe ngesikhathi esifanele okuvela ku-Oxfam, umqhubi wedolobhana wakwazi ukuxhumana ngqo nomhlinzeki eJalimane nge-Whatsapp. Ngesikhathi sokubhala, i-Oxfam yayibhekane nezinkinga zangaphambilini futhi uhlelo lwalusebenza kahle, lukhiqiza i-10m3/ngosuku ngokuthola amanzi angu-60% futhi lwakha imali engenayo yedolobhana.
Okungenani olunye uhlelo lwe-RO lufakiwe eNyakatho Yemen. Ulwazi lobuchwepheshe alutholakali, ngaphandle kokuthi uhlelo belungasebenzi ngo-2019 ngesikhathi sokuvakasha komeluleki we-GHT.
Isiqondiso nezifundo ezifundiwe
Ukususa usawoti emanzini okusekelwe ku-RO kuyinqubo eyinkimbinkimbi yokwelapha edinga ubuchwepheshe obunekhono obungaphezu kwamandla ekomidi lamanzi elivamile kanye nochwepheshe bezinga lomphakathi. Uhlelo lwe-RO ludinga ukuphathwa kochwepheshe okuvame ukuntuleka ezimweni lapho i-Oxfam isebenza khona. Izibonelo zempumelelo zivame kakhulu lapho ziqhutshwa njengebhizinisi nalapho amandla obuchwepheshe etholakala kalula, isib. iGaza.
Qinisekisa ukubonisana okwanele ngesikhathi sokuhlela. Cabanga ngokuzimisela kanye nekhono lokukhokha ngesikhathi sokuhlela iphrojekthi. E-Yemen abantu babekulungele ukukhokhela amanzi kodwa babejwayele ukuthi alethwe ezindlini zabo. Isitshalo sokukhipha usawoti esisekelwa yi-Oxfam sanikeza amanzi ngentengo eshibhile futhi ikhwalithi engcono, eqinisekisiwe kulokho okwakunikezwa abathengisi, kodwa izinga lenkonzo lalingafani njengoba laliqhele ngamamitha angamakhulu amaningana. Ngenxa yalokho, imindeni eminingi yaqhubeka nokusebenzisa abathengisi bamaloli amanzi. ESomaliland kwenziwa ucwaningo lokuzimisela ukukhokha olwabonakala luqinisekisa ukusebenza kahle komnotho kohlelo kodwa aluzange lucabangele ukuthi abantu bathanda amanzi “ a-berkad ” (amadamu okuvuna amanzi emvula angaphansi komhlaba). Ngenxa yalokho, ngesikhathi semvula, abantu abaningi bayeka ukuthenga amanzi akhishwe usawoti okuthinta ukusebenza kahle komnotho kwesitshalo se-RO, okudingeka sihlale sisebenza unyaka wonke ukuze kugwenywe ukuthi ama-membrane angonakali.
Qinisekisa ukuthi iphrojekthi inakekelwa ngokwanele futhi yakhiwe kahle . Izinhlelo zokususa usawoti ezifakwe yi-Oxfam eSomaliland zazingezokuqala zohlobo lwazo eZweni futhi ukusebenza kanye nempumelelo yephrojekthi kwakuhlose ukwazisa bonke abanye abasemkhakheni we-WASH. Ukuqapha okuseduze, okubalulekile ukuqinisekisa ukwesekwa kwezobuchwepheshe kanye nokufunda kwakungenakwenzeka ngoba izindawo zazikude ngamahora amaningana nehhovisi eliseduze le-Oxfam. Umphakathi wakhetha abaqhubi abanezinga eliphansi lokufunda nokubhala kanye nokuqonda okuncane noma okungenalo nhlobo isiNgisi okwenza ukuqeqeshwa kwaba nzima kakhulu. Ekugcineni kwavunyelwana ukuqasha abaqhubi abasebasha abafundile esikoleni abanokuqonda okuyisisekelo isiNgisi.
Uhlelo lokusetshenziswa/ukulahlwa kwamanzi amdaka kusukela ekuqaleni. Ezinhlelweni ze-RO eziphethwe kahle/ezisebenza kahle, okungenani ingxenye yesithathu yamanzi akhiqizwayo izoba umfudlana wemfucuza yamanzi angcolile noma amanzi alahliwe. Esimweni esomile cishe akunakwenzeka ukuthi kwamukeleke ukulahla la manzi abe yimfucuza. Amazwe angase abe nemingcele yemvelo yokuthi angakhishwa kuphi futhi kanjani amanzi anosawoti omningi. Ngaphansi kokubonisana nomphakathi kanye nesivumelwano, "ukulahla amanzi" kungase kusafanelekela izinjongo ezingasebenzisi (ukugeza nokuhlanza) futhi mhlawumbe ngisho nokupheka ngakho-ke kusengasetshenziswa ngendlela ekhiqizayo uma kuhlinzekwa ngentengo ephansi noma mahhala. Kukhona namathuba okudala okusebenzisa amanzi anosawoti ezitshalweni ezibekezelela usawoti noma ngisho nokufuya izinhlanzi. Ukulahla amanzi anosawoti abe yimfucuza kufanele kube yindlela yokugcina njengoba kungasebenzi kahle futhi kungase kulimaza imvelo.
Qinisekisa ukuthi opharetha abaqeqeshwe kahle nabafundile bakhethwa ukunakekela uhlelo. Lokhu kusiza kakhulu ekudluliseni izinkinga nalapho kudingeka khona ukuxazulula izinkinga kude. Izincwadi zansuku zonke eziqopha ukucindezela kwangaphambi nangemuva kwesihlungi, ukudla, ukungena nokugeleza kokugxila kanye ne-TDS, zenza izinguquko ekusebenzeni ngokuhamba kwesikhathi zihlolwe. Njengomthetho wesithupha ukwehla kokusebenza okungu-15% kusho ukuthi ukuhlanza nokulungisa kuyadingeka. Kwiyunithi ye-RO eYemen, ngoba opharetha wayeqonda isiNgisi, wayekwazi ukuxhumana nge-WhatsApp ngqo nomkhiqizi eBerlin futhi athumele izithombe ezibonisa inkinga. Lokhu kwavumela ukuhlonza inkinga kude ngaphakathi kwephaneli yokulawula kanye nesinye sezihlungi zokucindezela (ezazonakele lapho i-valve engalungile ivaliwe). Okuphambene nalokho kwakuyiqiniso eSomaliland ngenxa yokungakwazi kahle ukufunda nokubhala kwabasebenzi.
Ubuchwepheshe . Cabanga ngokusebenzisa iyunithi yokukhipha usawoti njengebhizinisi. Lokhu kudlula ukuqeqesha abaqhubi kanye nokucabangela izingxenye ezisele kanye nochungechunge lokuhlinzeka ngezinto ezisetshenziswayo. Kudinga uhlelo lwebhizinisi olucabangela ukuzimisela kanye nekhono lokukhokha, izinga lenkonzo elilindelwe amakhasimende, izinyathelo zokuqinisekisa ukuthi izidingo zabantu abasengozini kakhulu azikhishwa ngaphandle. Usomabhizinisi wendawo noma ibhizinisi lezentengiselwano cishe lizokwazi ukuhlangabezana nalezi zidingo kunekomidi lamanzi lendabuko ledolobha.
Isiphetho
I-reverse osmosis okwamanje iwukuphela kobuchwepheshe obusebenzayo bezinhlelo zobuntu zokususa usawoti ezingeni lomphakathi. I-Oxfam iqalise amaphrojekthi okususa usawoti emazweni amaningana, kodwa ngaphandle kwe-OPTI, enolwazi olukhulu ezweni, akucaci ukuthi noma yimiphi yale miklamo izohlala isikhathi eside yini. Izinga lobunzima bezitshalo zokususa usawoti lingaphezu kwamandla avame ukuhlotshaniswa namaphrojekthi aphethwe umphakathi futhi livame kakhulu endaweni yokusebenzela amanzi yobungcweti - ngobuchwepheshe bezobuchwepheshe endaweni, izivumelwano zokusekela/izinsizakalo zomkhakha wangasese, kanye nekhono lokuphatha ukuphatha imali engenayo ngempumelelo ukuze kuhlangatshezwane nezindleko ezinkulu eziphindaphindayo nezishintshayo. Ukuhlaziywa okuphelele kufanele kwenziwe ngaphambi kokutshala imali kuphrojekthi yokususa usawoti njengoba kunezingibe eziningi. I-Oxfam ayikwazi ukulawula konke noma ukuqinisekisa ukuqina kwesikhathi eside, kodwa ukuklama kudinga ukunaka lezi zinselele - ikakhulukazi ubuchwepheshe bezobuchwepheshe bangaphakathi nangaphandle, isidingo esicacile, ukuzimisela kanye nekhono lokukhokha, imodeli yebhizinisi engaxhomekile ekuphathweni komphakathi. Konke lokhu kudinga isikhathi, izinsiza kanye nokuphikelela, okudinga ngempela ukuzibophezela kohlelo lweminyaka eminingi ukuze kube nethuba lokuphumelela.
Uhlu lokuhlola ukuhlela iphrojekthi
Economic
Zingakanani izindleko zokuhlinzeka ngamanzi ngokukhipha usawoti emanzini (uma kucatshangelwa amaholo, izinto ezisetshenziswayo, isevisi kanye nokugcinwa, izingxenye ezithathelwa indawo)?
Ingabe zikhona ezinye izindlela zokususa usawoti emanzini? Uma kunjalo, ingabe ukuhlaziywa kwenzuzo yezindleko kwenziwe?
Ingabe abantu bazobe bezimisele futhi bekwazi ukukhokhela amanzi?
Ingabe kwenziwe ucwaningo lokuzimisela ukukhokha?
Ingabe abantu bakhokhela amanzi ngisho nangesikhathi sezimvula lapho kunezinye izindlela? Uma kungenjalo, ingabe ayasebenza ngokwezomnotho
Yiziphi izinyathelo ezikhona zokuqinisekisa ukuthi amanzi ayafinyeleleka emindenini esengozini/engenawo amandla okukhokha?
Ubuchwepheshe
Ingabe kukhona ubuchwepheshe obukhethekile ezingeni lesifunda noma likazwelonke bokulungisa njalo, ukuxazulula izinkinga kanye nokuhlinzeka ngezingxenye ezizofakwa esikhundleni sazo?
Ingabe ukuqapha ngemuva kokufakwa, ukulandelela kanye nokusekelwa kobuchwepheshe sekufakiwe kuphrojekthi futhi kwabekwa isabelomali?
Ingabe izindawo zephrojekthi ziyafinyeleleka ukuqinisekisa ukuthi kukhona ukuqapha okwanele kobuchwepheshe ngesikhathi sokuhlela, ukuqaliswa kanye nezigaba zangemuva kokuqedwa?
Ubani ozoba nesibopho sokuphathwa kwesitshalo sokukhipha usawoti isikhathi eside? Yibuphi ubufakazi obukhona bokuthi le nhlangano inamandla okusekela imishini eyinkimbinkimbi?
Uma kungekho rekhodi eliqinisekisiwe noma kukhona ukungaqiniseki, yiziphi izindlela zokunciphisa futhi ingabe kukhona uhlelo B?
Ingabe umthombo wamanzi uthembekile unyaka wonke futhi ingabe kukhona ukuguquguquka okukhulu kwezinkathi zonyaka kosawoti noma ukungcola okudingeka kucatshangelwe?
Kuyini ukusebenza kahle okulindelekile kohlelo futhi kuzokwenzekani ngomfudlana wamanzi angcolile?
Ingabe kukhona ochwepheshe abafundile abangaqeqeshwa ukwenza umsebenzi oyisisekelo kanye nokulungisa (abafundile, abakwazi ukuxhumana ngempumelelo ngosizo olukude ukuze baxazulule izinkinga (okungadinga ulwazi lwezilimi eziningi).
Ingabe kukhona ukutholakala kwe-antiscalant, ezinye izinto ezisetshenziswayo kanye nezingxenye ezithathelwa indawo emakethe yendawo - izihlungi zangaphambili, ama-membrane athathelwa indawo njll.?
Yiziphi izinyathelo ezisetshenziswayo uma isitshalo sokukhipha usawoti singahlangabezani nemigomo yaso yokuklama nokusebenza? Imali yokugcina? Ukwakha, ukusebenzisa kanye nokudlulisa imodeli?
Okubhekwayo
Imephu Yomgwaqo Wokukhipha Usawoti Okwezinga Elincane
Incwadi Yobuchwepheshe ye-Dow Filmtech RO
Kuyini i-capacitive deionization? I-webinar ye-membrane capacitive deionization ? (ikakhulukazi imizuzu 14.00-30.00)